International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication Engineering

Abstract: Cryptography has evolved from primitive methods of secrecy into a mathematically rigorous discipline that underpins privacy, trust, and security in the modern digital ecosystem. This paper presents a comprehensive exploration of cryptography as both a technical and socio-political construct, tracing its historical progression from classical ciphers and mechanical encryption devices to contemporary digital and post-quantum cryptographic systems. The study examines the foundational mechanisms of modern cryptography, including symmetric encryption, asymmetric key cryptography, hashing, and digital signatures, highlighting their complementary roles in ensuring confidentiality, authentication, and data integrity. Special emphasis is placed on hybrid cryptographic architectures such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), which form the backbone of secure internet communication. Beyond technical foundations, the paper analyzes cryptography’s role as a protector of human rights, particularly privacy and freedom of expression, and discusses the enduring “Crypto Wars” surrounding lawful access and encryption backdoors. Emerging privacy-enhancing cryptographic techniques, including Zero-Knowledge Proofs and Homomorphic Encryption, are evaluated for their potential to enable secure computation without data exposure. Finally, the paper addresses the existential threat posed by quantum computing to current cryptographic standards and outlines the urgent transition toward post-quantum cryptography, with a focus on NIST-selected lattice-based algorithms. The paper concludes that cryptography is not merely a security tool but a fundamental pillar of digital trust, requiring continuous innovation, sound policy, and global cooperation to safeguard future information systems.

Keywords: Cryptography, Digital Security, Symmetric Encryption, Asymmetric Cryptography, AES, RSA, Elliptic Curve Cryptography, TLS/SSL, Digital Signatures, Privacy-Enhancing Cryptography, Zero-Knowledge Proofs, Homomorphic Encryption, Crypto Wars, Human Rights, Post-Quantum Cryptography, Quantum Computing

Downloads: | DOI: 10.17148/IJARCCE.2025.141292